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Entrapment in flowable agricultural material continues to be a relevant problem facing both farmers and employees of commercial grain storage and handling operations. While considerable work has been done previously on the causes of entrapment in grain and possible preventative measures, there is little research on the efficacy of current first response or extrication techniques. With the recent introduction of new grain rescue equipment and training programs, it was determined that the need exists to document and summarize prior grain rescue strategies with a view to develop evidence-based recommendations that would enhance the efficacy of the techniques used and reduce the risks to both victims and first responders. Utilizing the Purdue University Agricultural Entrapment Database, all data were queried for information related to extrication of victims from grain entrapments documented over the period 1964-2006. Also analyzed were data from other sources, including public records related to entrapments and information from onsite investigations. Significant findings of this study include the following: (1) between 1964 and 2006, the number of entrapments averaged 16 per year, with the frequency increasing over the last decade; (2) of all cases documented, about 45% resulted in fatality; (3) no less than 44% of entrapments occurred in shelled corn; (4) fatality was the result in 82% of cases where victims were submerged beneath the grain surface, while fatality occurred in 10% of cases where victims were only partially engulfed; (5) the majority of rescues were reported to have been conducted by untrained personnel who were at the scene at the time of entrapment; and (6) in those cases where the rescue strategies were known, 56% involved cutting or punching holes in the side walls of the storage structure, 19% involved utilizing onsite fabricated grain retaining walls to extricate partially entrapped victims, and the use of grain vacuum machines as a rescue strategy was on the increase. Among the recommendations growing out of the study are these: (1) conduct further tests on the efficacy of grain rescue strategies, including the use of recently introduced grain rescue tubes and grain vacuum machines; (2) incorporate the findings into future first responder training programs; and (3) enhance the first response skills of personnel working at grain storage facilities, both on-farm and at commercial operations.

The number of victims (51) of grain-related entrapments and suffocations documented during 2010 was
the highest on record. This trend towards an increasing frequency of these incidents is inconsistent with the
decreasing frequency of almost all other forms of agricultural-related injuries and fatalities. Contributing
factors include the increased storage of grain on-farms, increased commercial storage capacity, increased
capacity of handling and transport equipment and the levels of out-of-condition grain due to delayed harvests
and inappropriate processing and storage practices. Due to this increase in incidents, considerable attention
is being given to exploring cost-effective intervention strategies to reduce the frequency and severity of these
incidents.
This article provides a preliminary summary of data gathered on over 800 documented incidents
involving entrapment or suffocation in U.S. grain storage and handling operations that have been entered
into the Purdue Agriculture Confined Space Database (PACSD). Special emphasis is given to those
incidents documented in 2010. The Purdue database has incident records dating back to 1964. Specific
causative factors including: type of structure or facility, type of grain involved, condition of grain prior to the
incident, activities at the time of entrapment and environmental conditions are summarized.
Recommendations for engineering, regulatory and worker education measures are included along with the
use of recently commercialized grain rescue tubes to rescue victims from entrapment situations.

Over the past two decades, there has been more widespread use of pneumatic handling of grain at commercial grain storage facilities and on farms as these operations have increased grain storage capacity and handle larger volumes of grain and feed.

In some cases, manufacturers have suggested that the use of these systems is a safer alternative to removing residual grain manually in conjunction with the use of sweep augers. The use of grain vacuum systems has also been increasingly documented as a strategy in responding to grain storage fires and human entrapment and engulfment in flowing grain. With greater utilization of these machines have come reports of entrapments and engulfments. This article summarizes 27 such documented incidents, including
21 fatalities, that resulted from the use of portable grain vacuum systems. It includes specific recommendations for engineering, educational, and regulatory strategies to reduce
the risks associated with the use of these systems

Since 1977, the Purdue University Agricultural Safety and Health Program has managed a database with ongoing efforts to identify, document, and analyze information on injuries and fatalities in all forms of agricultural confined spaces, with special attention given to incidents involving grain, forage, and manure storage structures and agricultural transport vehicles. The database contains over 1650 cases from 1964 to the present and two cases before 1964. The average number of cases in the last ten years remains at a high of 63 cases per year. Overall, confined-space related cases were documented in 43 states, with the most occurring in the Corn Belt region. More than 1000 (62%) of these cases were grain-related entrapments; however, in recent years the proportion of grain-related cases has declined with more aggressive surveillance for all types of agricultural confined-space incidents including falls and entanglements inside grain storage structures. Grain entrapments represented 49% of all confined space cases in 2013 as compared to earlier years when nearly all documented cases were grain entrapment related. There has also been a shift in location distribution of cases, with the southern states now representing 18% of all recent cases. These findings are critical for informing the discussion on developing regulations, design standards, and safety programs to reduce the frequency and severity of these incidents.

Purdue University’s Agricultural Safety and Health Program (PUASHP) has collaborated with secondary agricultural education programs, including FFA Chapters, for over 70 years to deliver and promote agricultural safety and health programming. With support from a U.S. Department of Labor Susan Harwood Program grant, PUASHP utilized a Developing a Curriculum (DACUM) process to develop, implement, and evaluate an evidence-based curriculum for use with young and beginning workers, ages 16–20, exposed to hazards associated with grain storage and handling. The primary audience was students enrolled in secondary agricultural education programs. A review of the literature identified a gap in educational resources that specifically addresses this target population. The curriculum developed was based on fatality and injury incident data mined from Purdue’s Agricultural Confined Space Incident Database and input from a panel of experts. The process identified 27 learning outcomes and finalized a pool of test questions, supported by empirical evidence and confirmed by a panel of experts. An alignment process was then completed with the current national standards for secondary agricultural education programs. Seventy-two youth, ages 16–20, enrolled in secondary-school agricultural education programs, and a smaller group of post-secondary students under the age of 21 interested in working in the grain industry pilot tested the curriculum. Based on student and instructor feedback, the curriculum was refined and submitted to OSHA for approval as part of OSHA’s online training resources. The curriculum was delivered to 3,665 students, ages 16–20. A total of 346 pre- and post-tests were analyzed, and the results used to confirm content validity and assess knowledge gain. Findings led to additional modifications to curriculum content, affirmed knowledge gain, and confirmed appropriateness for use with secondary agricultural education programs. The curriculum has been promoted nationally and made available for free download from www.agconfinedspaces.org. Findings further confirmed the value of delivering safety programming through established programs such as secondary agricultural education programs and FFA Chapters serving youth.

Since 1978, the Purdue University Agricultural Safety and Health Program has managed a surveillance effort and database to collect information on documented injuries and fatalities in all forms of U.S. agricultural confined spaces. The database currently contains 1,968 cases documented in the U.S. between 1964 and 2016. Of these cases, 174 (8.8%) involved entrapment or suffocation in grain transport vehicles (GTVs), including gravity-flow wagons, semi-truck trailers, and other agricultural transport vehicles that have limited access and are not considered normal work spaces or are classified as confined spaces. These GTV cases represent the overwhelming majority of documented cases involving all forms of agricultural transport vehicles, including forage and manure transport vehicles. Of the incidents documented, 64.3% resulted in fatalities and 71.8% involved children and youth age 20 years and under, when the age was determined. For the GTV cases, the typical victim was male (88.5%), and the average age of the victim was 19.9 (median 12), with over 63.5% of the cases involving children under the age of 15. In numerous incidents, more than one victim became entrapped, including one incident involving five victims. The number of documented cases decreased sharply from a peak of approximately 7 cases per year in the early 1990s to an average of 3.1 cases per year over the past two decades, with no cases documented in 1998 and 2013. However, there is a linear increase in the frequency of incidents since the first case was documented in 1964. This trend is partially due to peaks in 2011 and 2014, when 10 and 9 cases, respectively, were documented, along with more vigilant surveillance methods due to online search capabilities. The general decline, more recently, in the annual number of cases is attributed to increased awareness of the hazards to youth during transport in GTVs, increased use of warnings on GTVs, and the increased size of GTVs, which makes human access more difficult and less practical. Efforts over the past decade to bring attention to the risk of entrapment in GTVs should be recognized as a success of the educational and technological strategies initiated due to earlier high-profile incidents. However, with 6, 10, 9, and 4 cases documented in 2010, 2011, 2014, and 2016, respectively, continued efforts to address the problem are justified. Recommendations for future actions include development of a safety standard for GTVs that includes placement of safety messages on all new GTVs, use of windows above outlets, retrofitting older GTVs with appropriate warnings, and continuing to address the hazard with safety resources targeting all workers exposed to grain handling and transport.

No previous studies have been found that document the level of use or validate the effectiveness of safety harnesses and lifelines in the prevention of or extrication from grain entrapments or engulfments. This article addresses that void via analysis of the data contained in the Purdue Agricultural Confined Space Incident Database. A total of 1,147 cases involving entrapments or engulfments in grain masses were mined for terms that might indicate the use of a safety harness, lifeline, fall restraint system, rope, or outside observer. Case information ranged from brief news accounts to comprehensive investigation results. The review turned up 38 incidents (<5%) in which these safety devices were identified as having been used by either workers or rescuers during access to a storage structure. In 26 of the 38 cases (68%) where safety devices were identified, the entrapment or engulfment resulted in a fatality. The two most common reasons cited for failure of these devices were (1) that the lifeline or rope was too long (17 incidents) and (2) that the worker had removed the harness with the attached lifeline while in the structure (6 incidents). It was also determined that these devices, if used improperly, can lead to secondary injuries of the victim. The preliminary evidence suggests that use of these devices alone does not ensure the user’s safety and may even provide a false sense of security if used without proper training. It was further found that an approved body harness and safety line provided little or no protection from either entrapment or falls if used in the presence of vertically crusted grain surfaces, without proper anchors, or not in conjunction with outside observers. The presented results are important for safety professionals to consider as they endeavor to reduce the risk of grain entrapment and engulfment incidents through training, education, selection of personal protective equipment, etc., and should contribute to the development of new structural standards for grain bins. It is the intent of this article to elucidate the importance of training and proper use of these safety devices.

As part of ongoing surveillance of fatalities and injuries involving agricultural confined spaces by Purdue University’s Agricultural Safety and Health Program, nearly 300 cases involving manure storage, handling, and transport equipment and facilities have been documented over the past 30 years. With the exception of a summary of 77 fatalities published by Beaver and Field1, these cases have not been previously analysed or published due to a lack of resources and the limitations of the Purdue Agricultural Confined Spaces Incident Database (PACSID) which was designed primarily for analysis of grain-related cases. These limitations included differences in terminology used to code case information in the PACSID and dissimilar causative and contributing factors.

To develop a consistent and more useful approach to process and analyze data, 28 U.S. manure-related incidents involving 39 victims documented as having occurred in 2017 were examined for type of incident, victim characteristics, primary contributing factors, and nature of injuries. A review of literature was conducted to identify previously reported contributing factors, and a coding rubric was developed and reviewed by a panel of experts. It was determined that the rubric provided a consistent way to code and analyze descriptive information available on each case. A pilot analysis was completed of the 39 cases using the new tool, and results were summarized. The final methodology will be used to analyze all historically documented incidents, as well as future incidents. Findings presented include a review of relevant literature, discussion of the methods used in case documentation, classifications developed from sample data, and a summary of incidents in 2017. Anticipated outcomes include: 1) consistent strategy to document, code, and summarize manure-related incidents; 2) means of classification of key contributing factors; 3) identification of new or emerging trends; and 4) completion of previously documented incidents.

Purdue University’s Agricultural Safety and Health Program (PUASHP) has been monitoring farm-related fatalities in Indiana for more than 70 years. The earliest identified summary of cases was published in 1960. This database, although recognized as not comprehensive for all farm-related deaths, provides a unique opportunity to explore trends that have occurred over several decades during which agricultural production has experienced considerable transformation in technology and practices. Analysis of earlier unpublished Indiana fatality data gathered during the 1940s and early 1950s identified the leading causes of deaths during that period as livestock related, primarily involving horses and bulls. These animal-related causes of injury and death have been largely replaced, at a much lower frequency, with tractors and machinery. Over the past five decades, the data show a clear downward trend that closely parallels the decline in the number and ongoing consolidation of farm operations, with the exception of the last decade, during which there has been a slightly increasing frequency of incidents. No fewer than 1,412 farm-related fatalities have been documented in Indiana since 1970, or approximately 30.7 fatalities annually, with an average over the past ten years of 25.2. Fatalities involving children and youth ages 1 to 17 have also continued to decline in number from 5 to 9 per year to an average of less than 2 per year over the last five years. On the other hand, incidents involving those over the age of 60 are trending slightly upward, accounting for about 48% of all documented fatalities and for 33% in 2016. For the past two decades, tractors accounted for 45% of all farm fatalities, including in 1998 when the percentage of cases involving tractors reached a high of 75%. Since 1970, tractor overturns have been the single most frequently identified cause of farm-related deaths. In 2016, 36% of all documented fatalities involved tractors, of which nearly all were related to an overturn. Findings suggest that the diversity of causative agents involved is increasing, the problem remains male-centric with ages that exceed the average age of Indiana farmers, children no longer make up a significant number of cases, and the Amish/Old Order communities and part-time farmers in the state account for a disproportionate share of farm-related deaths. Hazards identified as needing special attention include the operation of older, non-rollover protective structure (ROPS) equipped tractors by older workers, working in wood lots and tree felling on farms, operating self-propelled mowing equipment on farms, working with livestock, including horses, and falls from agricultural structures. The findings are being used to aid in allocation of diminishing injury prevention resources and development of more evidenced-based educational programming.

Research was conducted to document, classify, analyze, and summarize available injury and fatality data involving facilities and equipment for livestock manure storage, handling, and transport in the seven-state region (Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota) served by the Central States Center for Agricultural Safety and Health (CS-CASH). Data were initially drawn from the Purdue Agricultural Confined Space Incident Database (PACSID), which contained over 2,400 individual U.S. cases of agricultural confined space related entrapment, engulfment, entanglement, asphyxiation, and falls that were documented between 1975 and 2019. Data from these cases have been partially summarized and published, but the findings did not include in-depth analysis of manure-related incidents. Approximately one in five (460) of the 2,400+ cases that were documented over 44 years involved storage, handling, or transport of livestock wastes, including exposure to toxic gases. Of these, 133 cases were documented as having occurred in the targeted seven-state region. Each case was identified and coded according to a protocol developed previously to classify incidents related to livestock manure handling, storage, and transport. Iowa and Minnesota accounted for 79% of the total, with swine operations accounting for 33% of cases when livestock type was known. Of the victims, 79% were male. Ages ranged from 1 to 85, with an average age of 38, and 15% of the victims were age 21 and under. There were 13 incidents for which two or more victims were identified, including one incident involving four victims. It is believed that historical under-reporting of incidents, especially non-fatal incidents, continues to be a barrier to achieving a more comprehensive understanding of the scope and magnitude of the problem. However, the findings are sufficient to be used in cooperation with stakeholders to enhance the content and delivery of evidence-based agricultural safety and health programs, promote safer work practices, and contribute to the development of engineering design standards. The desired outcomes of this research include more effective strategies to protect farmers and farm workers who are at high risk of manure-related injuries. The findings also provide a sufficient baseline to gauge the effectiveness of future injury prevention measures.

There is limited published research exploring the frequency and causes of livestock waste-related fatalities and injuries among farm operators and workers. While there has been ongoing surveillance of mortality and morbidity involving agricultural confined space-related incidents, such as grain storage facilities, few resources have been invested in estimating the frequency of livestock waste-related incidents, which are often reported as primarily involving confined spaces. Existing surveillance efforts have historically underreported fatal cases, injuries, and near misses and misclassified these incidents as non-farm related. For nearly 40 years, the Purdue Agricultural Confined Spaces Incident Database (PACSID) has been used to document agricultural confined space-related incidents, of which manure storage and handling activities have accounted for 22% of the cases documented. The specific goal of this study was to address the gap in the current understanding of the frequency and severity of injuries associated with livestock waste storage, handling, and transport by: (1) developing a consistent way to identify, document, and code these cases; (2) summarizing all known U.S. cases, both fatal and non-fatal, currently documented in the PACSID; (3) identifying the most significant risks contributing to livestock waste storage, handling, and transport-related incidents; and (4) providing evidence-based recommendations and mitigation strategies to enhance the effectiveness of current injury prevention measures. The PACSID and other sources were mined for relevant data, and an aggressive effort was made to document additional cases through a variety of surveillance methods. A total of 459 individual U.S. cases from the study period (1975 to 2019) were identified, coded using a uniform coding system, and summarized. Overall, cases were documented in 43 states, with 66% (302 cases) documented in heavily agricultural and, more specifically, historically strong dairy production states. Of the cases reviewed, 59% were fatal, males ages 21 to 30 and dairy farm workers were identified as high-risk populations, 20% were identified as under the age of 21, and 49 incidents involved multiple victims. Farm injury data limitations and underreporting were problematic, especially during the early years of the study period. However, the findings provide a foundation for recommending safer workplace safety and health practices, evaluating existing engineering and regulatory standards, assessing the impacts of current injury prevention efforts, and redesigning farm safety programs, especially those targeting livestock workers, to reduce the frequency and severity of these incidents.

Various aspects of moving grain into and out of storage have long been recognized as highly hazardous due to the risks and injury experience of workers. In past years the industry has not affectively addressed many of the injury risks associated with grain handling. The Grain Handling Safety Coalition (GHSC) was formed in an attempt to bring effected parties of all sides of the issue together to explore means to effectively and practically improve addressing safety issues associated with grain handling and storage. After an initial phone conference, face to face meetings and phone conferences were held to discuss in-depth the issues from the perspectives of the represented agencies; identify key topics; and develop action plans. The GHSC sought funding (grants and donations) to initiate action plans. Committees formed and were tasked with development and implementation of action plan components. The GHSC reviewed each component prior to implementation. The Coalition has grown to represent more than 20 organizations including industry associations, farm organizations, grain bin manufacturers, universities, support services and farm service agencies (insurance, rural medical, rescue, USDA FDA, farm credit) regulatory, (state department of agriculture, OSHA, Wage and Hour for child labor) and commercial industry (grain elevators). Existing training programs in some key areas, such as how to establish a lifeline in a grain bin, lack specific detail on how to perform the procedure. It was difficult to attract farmers to programs that were 4 hours or longer. Training programs and associated materials received very high rating for quality. Conducted training programs for workers and potential community based instructors. Promoting training modules through conferences, websites, newsletters etc. The training programs developed need to be integrated into the agricultural industry nationwide. Further work on how to effectively train both farm workers and grain elevator workers need to be conducted. Testing of the use of a full body harness and lanyard in pulling out someone entrapped in grain. Facilitating 2014 Grain Suffocation Prevention Symposium.

Grain storage containers not only present inherent dangers to the operators, but also to the rescuers if someone falls in. Here we report the rescue of a patient from a grain container using a novel technique involving a cylinder placed around the patient. This allowed the grain to be sucked out from around the patient and enabled his rescue uninjured. The rescue action was complicated by acute chest pain in the patient while he was submerged in the grain, and a severe asthma attack in the emergency physician. The rescue and the dilemmas encountered are described together with a review of the relevant literature.

Proper management of manure storage facilities is essential to provide environmental, agronomic, and economic benefits to the farm. Inadequate management may result in inefficiency in farming operations, such as delays in land preparation and planting leading to reduced crop yields. Poorly managed manure storages can also produce odors that may be a nuisance to neighbors. Managing manure storage structures include manure removal, monitoring the integrity of the storage structure, and appearance or aesthetics. This publication provides some good managements practices for animal feeding operators to consider for their operations.

Livestock workers are involved in a variety of tasks, such as caring for animals, maintaining the breeding facilities, cleaning, and manure handling, and are exposed to health and safety risks. Hydrogen sulfide is considered the most toxic by-product of the manure handling process at livestock facilities. Except for several reports in developed countries, the statistics and cause of asphyxiation incidents in farms have not been collected and reported systematically, although the number of these incidents is expected to increase in developing and underdeveloped countries. In this study, the authors compiled the cases of work-related asphyxiation incidents at livestock manure storage facilities and analyzed the main causes. In this survey, a total of 17 incidents were identified through newspapers or online searches and public reports. Thirty workers died and eight were injured due to work-related tasks and rescue attempts from 1998 to 2013 in Korea. Of the 30 fatalities, 18 occurred during manure handling/maintenance tasks and 12 during rescue attempts. All incidents except for one case occurred during the warm season from the late spring (April) to early autumn (September) when manure is likely to decompose rapidly. It is important to train employees involved in the operation of the facilities (i.e., owners, managers, employees) regarding the appropriate prevention strategies for confined space management, such as hazard identification before entry, periodical facility inspection, restriction of unnecessary access, proper ventilation, and health and safety. Sharing information or case reports on previous incidents could also help prevent similar cases from occurring and reduce the number of fatalities and injuries.

Livestock workers are involved in a variety of tasks, such as caring for animals, maintaining the breeding facilities, cleaning, and manure handling, and are exposed to health and safety risks. Hydrogen sulfide is considered the most toxic by-product of the manure handling process at livestock facilities. Except for several reports in developed countries, the statistics and cause of asphyxiation incidents in farms have not been collected and reported systematically, although the number of these incidents is expected to increase in developing and underdeveloped countries. In this study, the authors compiled the cases of work-related asphyxiation incidents at livestock manure storage facilities and analyzed the main causes. In this survey, a total of 17 incidents were identified through newspapers or online searches and public reports. Thirty workers died and eight were injured due to work-related tasks and rescue attempts from 1998 to 2013 in Korea. Of the 30 fatalities, 18 occurred during manure handling/maintenance tasks and 12 during rescue attempts. All incidents except for one case occurred during the warm season from the late spring (April) to early autumn (September) when manure is likely to decompose rapidly. It is important to train employees involved in the operation of the facilities (i.e., owners, managers, employees) regarding the appropriate prevention strategies for confined space management, such as hazard identification before entry, periodical facility inspection, restriction of unnecessary access, proper ventilation, and health and safety. Sharing information or case reports on previous incidents could also help prevent similar cases from occurring and reduce the number of fatalities and injuries.

A 27-year-old male hog farm employee (victim #1) died as a result of hydrogen sulfide poisoning when he entered a manure- waste pit to extract a pump. The 46-year-old farm co-owner, the victim’s uncle (victim #2), also died from hydrogen sulfide poisoning when he entered the pit in a rescue attempt. The manure pit was a holding facility for manure that drained from five holding barns on the property before being pumped to a holding pond 150 feet away. When victim #1 and a co-worker tried to pump the manure from the pit, they discovered that the pump intake was clogged. A tripod-mounted come-a-long was positioned directly over the pit so the pump could be extracted for servicing. A 3-inch wire rope was attached to an eye bolt at the top of the pump. As the workers tried to raise the pump from the pit, the wire rope broke. The following morning victim #1 went to one of the barns to get a length of rope with a hook at its end to attach to the pump’s eye bolt. As he prepared to descend the ladder into the pit, he was warned by his co-worker that poisonous gases might be present in the pit. Victim #1, explaining to the co-worker that he had entered the pit several times in the past and that he would be fine, descended the ladder into the pit. As he reached for the pump, he collapsed and fell into the manure. The co-worker ran to the farm office and called the rescue squad, then contacted the co-owner by two-way radio and told him what had happened. When the co-owner arrived, he decided to enter the pit with a rope to tie around the victim. The co-worker tried to restrain the co-owner from entering the pit, but the co-owner insisted that he had to go into the pit and help his nephew. The co-owner (victim #2) then entered the pit, and, as he attempted to tie the rope around the victim, collapsed on top of the victim. The rescue squad, equipped with self-contained breathing apparatus, removed the victims from the pit. NIOSH investigators concluded that, to prevent future similar occurrences, employers should:

identify manure-waste pits as confined spaces and post hazard warning signs at all entrances
instruct farm employees never to enter manure-waste systems unless absolutely necessary, and only when following safe entry procedures
instruct farm employees never to enter a manure pit, or any other confined space, to attempt a rescue operation without proper consideration for their own safety
periodically inspect equipment for physical damage, especially equipment located or used in corrosive environments
equip manure-waste systems with some type of powered ventilation system.
Additionally, manufacturers of equipment designed for use in manure-waste pit systems should:

include warnings on the potential hazards associated with these systems.

A mail survey of 1,200 farms across 16 states was conducted to identify the number, type, and size of manure storages per farm, as well as safety-related behaviors or actions related to entry into confined-space manure storage and handling facilities. Respondents provided data on 297 storage units and facilities, with approximately 75% reporting up to three storages per farm operation. Dimensions were provided for 254 manure pits: nearly 66% were less than or equal to 100 feet long, 75% were less than or equal to 40 feet wide, and 75% were less than or equal to 10 feet deep. Almost 14% of the reported storages were over 300 feet long, seven were wider than 100 feet, and 17 were more than 20 feet deep. Survey results suggest that most farm operations with confined-space manure storages do not follow best safety practices regarding their manure storages, including using gas detection equipment before entering a manure pit, using rescue lines when entering storages, or developing a written confined-space safety policy or plan. Survey results also suggest that few farmers post warning signs around their storages, post recommended ventilation times before entry, or conduct training for workers who enter confined-space manure storages. This article provides a benchmark against which the effectiveness of educational programs and design tools for confined-space manure pit ventilation systems and other confined-space manure pit safety interventions can be measured.

FARM workers are at risk of contracting a unique set of occupationally related illnesses.^2,3 Chemical toxicity is usually pesticide related but is also seen in settings like silage storage where toxic gases can be released. In contrast, manure handling has involved little chemical exposure except for that experienced through the nasal route. We present information to document how conversion of waste management units to more efficient liquid-manure systems can result in an increased risk of toxic chemical exposure.

Report of a Case  A 16-year-old farm worker began using high-pressure hot water to clean manure from gutters inside a recently emptied calf barn in Wisconsin. He was 10 m from a 378,500-L underground liquid-manure storage tank, the contents of which had been agitating for 30 to 60 minutes (Figure). After ten minutes he began to cough, vomited, collapsed, and died. A co-worker who was working close to an exhaust fan

An in-depth investigation of an unusual, non-enclosed manure storage hydrogen sulfide-induced fatality on a Holstein beef production operation is presented. The case involved several factors that likely played a role in the young farmer’s death. These included zero wind movement, a reported temperature inversion in the area, relatively cool late summer outdoor temperatures on the morning of the incident, higher outdoor temperatures the week prior, and a high by-product steer ration containing ingredients that contributed significant sulfur content to the stored manure. Recommendations are offered for future research to determine the combinations of conditions and inputs that have potential to increase human and animal risk around manure storage structures. Based on this case and others recently documented showing unsafe levels of hydrogen sulfide being released from similar outdoor storages, it is critical that agricultural industry experts and input suppliers continue to analyze risk and consequences associated with new management practices, processes, inputs (including feed ingredients and animal bedding), machines, and other technology developed to support animal agriculture. Production practice and educational guidance are also offered based on this case and published literature.

Previous studies have demonstrated a high prevalence of respiratory and other symptoms and a decrement in lung function among pig farm workers, although the relationships with specific agents present in the work environment remain obscure. This study was therefore undertaken to investigate the relationship between symptoms, lung function and airborne endotoxin, ammonia and dust levels in piggeries. Information on symptoms, lung function, endotoxin, ammonia and dust levels was available for 183 pig farmers who worked in 136 farms. For 62 farms information was present on the levels of bacteria and gram-negative bacteria. For these 62 farms, endotoxin exposure measurements were taken in more than one stable. In general, no significant correlations were found between lung function and chronic respiratory symptoms, or dust and ammonia levels. The endotoxin concentration in stables was negatively related to most lung function variables, but only for the subgroup of 62 farmers was a statistically significant relationship found between endoxtoxin exposure and FEV1. A borderline statistically significant and negative relationship was found between the endotoxin concentration and the FVC. Symptoms experienced during or shortly after work showed odds ratios larger than one with the levels of bacteria, gram-negative bacteria and endotoxin, indicating a positive relationship. No consistency in the relationship between symptoms and dust levels was found. The results suggest that endotoxins and (gram-negative) bacteria probably play an important role in the development of symptoms and lung function changes among pig farmers.

The New York Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) program is designed to identify and study fatal occupational injuries in New York State. The New York FACE program is supported by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and administered by the New York State Department of Health (NYS DOH) in cooperation with Cornell University. New York FACE investigators evaluate information from multiple sources, conduct objective on-site investigations, and then summarize their findings in narrative reports that include recommendations for preventing similar events in the future. These recommendations are distributed to employers, workers, and other organizations as an educational tool for promoting workplace safety. The following case study involved a 53-year-old dairy farm owner who was fatally injured while transferring manure from an underground storage pit to a manure lagoon. At the time of the incident, the farmer was utilizing a manure pump that was connected to a tractor via a power take-off (PTO) shaft. The farmer reached across the unshielded PTO shaft in order to operate a hand crank that adjusted the manure pump chute. As he did this, his clothing became entangled in the PTO shaft, wrapping the farmer’s body around the shaft. New York FACE investigators concluded that to help prevent similar incidents from occurring in the future: PTO-powered equipment should not be operated unless the PTO shield is in place and in good condition; Power to equipment should be turned off prior to making mechanical adjustments; Manure handling systems should be designed to facilitate operator safety; Farm workers should be healthy and well rested prior to performing hazardous activities and; Dairy farm workers should be trained in manure handling safety and knowledgeable about other manure hazards.

A male worker entered an underground manure pit and lost consciousness. His coworker tried to rescue him and also lost consciousness in the pit. Emergency service arrived in minutes and removed both of them from the pit. Both men suffered anoxic brain injury and died in the hospital. Cases from Iowa Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation Program Data Base program were reviewed. Occupational mortality rate was found to be 7.4 per 10,000 per year for occupational deaths related to agriculture compared to 3.1 per 10,000 per year for deaths not related to agriculture. In most of the cases associated with sewage or livestock waste handling, victims died of asphyxiation. While manure pit injury is rare, it has an extremely high fatality rate. The most effective strategy to decrease mortality is active prevention.

Modern methods of intensive livestock production involve the storage of liquid wastes. The digestion of this manure by anaerobic bacteria produces a highly toxic mixture of gases, the most dangerous of which is hydrogen sulphide. We report the case of a young man who died after inhaling liquid manure gas.

Liquid manure storage is a common component of confinement systems for swine, beef, dairy, and veal operations. A mail questionnaire to a sample of swine producers indicated that more than 85,000 people in Iowa and an estimated 500,000 in the United States work in livestock confinement systems that use liquid manure storage. Deaths and illnesses in people with acute exposure to toxic gases emanating from the liquid manure have been recently reported. This communication reports results of the investigation of six such incidents. Hydrogen sulfide appears to be the main toxic substance involved, and agitatation of the liquid manure is important in creating an acutely severely toxic environment. Preventive measures must include worker education and limitation of human exposure through control of environmental and human factors.

Objective. As production methods for livestock and poultry moved towards large industrial-scale confinement facilities, the occupational health community reported risks for respiratory illnesses in workers. Likely, greater risks for respiratory disease will occur with the continuing trend towards full-time confinement workers, who inspire a combination of bioaerosols, particulates, and gases. 1-3 Although there have been numerous studies on the individual health effects of air contaminants inside confined animal production facilities, there have been no reports on the effects of combined exposures. The objective of this study was to investigate the combined health effects of air contaminants on poultry production workers. Sample Population. Two hundred and fifty-seven poultry production workers participated in this study. The workers represented various areas of the poultry industry, including turkey growing, broiler production, egg laying, and unloading/shakeling in poultry processing. Worker procedures pulmonary function testing was conducted before and after a four-hour work shift. The work environment was assessed for total and respirable dust, ammonia, endotoxin and CO 2 . The relationship of simultaneous total dust and ammonia exposures was examined by correlation, logistic modeling, and synergy index calculations. Results. Synergy between ammonia levels and airborne dust explained up to 43% and 63% of the decline (respectively for Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV) in one second and Forced Expiratory Flow ([FEF 2 5- 75 ]) in pulmonary function over the work shift. Furthermore, assessing the synergy index indicated the combined effect of dust and ammonia is from 53 to 156% (greater combined than individually). The proportion of health effect due to synergy is 35%-61%. Conclusions. Synergy of simultaneous dust and ammonia exposures in a working environment raises the question of redefining exposure limits for organic dust and ammonia when workers are exposed simultaneously to these substances. Clinical Relevance. Control of both dust and ammonia in livestock facilities is extremely important. Lack of control of both these contaminants will increase the risk of respiratory dysfunction to all exposed to this environment, including workers and veterinarians.

This brief report for the Journal of Agromedicine presents key findings of a systematic review of scholarly products produced between 2004 and 2015 associated with agricultural safety and health priority areas. This brief report is derived from “A review of the National Research and Extension Agenda for Agricultural Safety and Health”. The purpose of this report is to provide a synopsis of extension and research safety efforts and provide recommendations for extension. The scholarly products were classified into three main groups: peer-reviewed journal articles, technical conference papers, and educational products. It was found that more scholarly products were produced in the priority areas in more recent years, and more educational products were produced than peer-reviewed journal articles. Land-grant universities alone produce almost one-half of the total scholarly products within the priority areas.

armers may be at risk to develop several respiratory health disorders as a result of inhalation of substances suspended in their environment. Despite the large numbers of farmers in Canada and the United States, information on their respiratory health status remains limited (1-3) and epidemiologic studies relating respiratory symptoms to lung function in farmers have just begun (4, 5). Recent work has suggested that workmen in the cereal grain storage and transporting industry are at risk of developing obstructive pulmonary disease (6-9), and because farmers are exposed to grain dust, they too may be at risk.

There seems little doubt…

Data were compiled and analyzed on the estimated frequency and characteristics of deaths related to on-farm manure storage and handling facilities for the period of 1975 through 2004. Sources included published government reports, national and local media, on-line searches, published farm fatality reports, and prior litigation. No prior research was identified that addressed the magnitude of the problem, nor documented evidence-based intervention strategies. Data from 77 fatalities along with 21 severe injuries and 14 international fatality cases were identified, documented and coded for analysis. Analysis of the 77 fatalities showed that victim characteristics and causative factors did not reflect previously reported patterns; i.e., over half of the fatalities involved dairy operations and 21% involved persons under the age of 16. The largest percentage (34%) of deaths occurred to persons conducting repair or maintenance activities on manure handling equipment, while the second largest group (22%) were attempting to perform a rescue of another person. The most frequently identified cause of death was asphyxiation with elevated levels of sulfide levels in the blood noted in some cases. The peak period of incidents were during the hottest part of the summer and often associated with transferring of manure for application to crop ground. Recommendations included the need to revise ASABE EP470 Manure Storage Safety Practice to include engineering controls that would reduce the need for farmers and farm workers to enter spaces containing toxic manure-related gases. In addition, the need to educate owner/operators and employees concerning the hazards associated with agricultural manure storage structures and equipment, especially those classified as permit-required confined spaces, should be considered, including the need for appropriate warnings and entry procedures. Incorporation of current OSHA confined spaceentry procedures into these facilities is also recommended.

The principal goal of this research was to develop intervention strategies that would potentially reduce the likelihood of fatal entrapments in gravity-flow grain wagons. A nationwide study of fatal farm work-related grain entrapments was initiated to quantify the problem of on-farm grain entrapments, to identify high risk groups, and to gain information that might enable the development of more effective intervention strategies. The study identified 235 incidences from 1964 through 1994. The incidences were identified in 23 states and in the Canadian province of Ontario. Grain transport vehicles were reported to be involved in 39 cases. Full-scale gravity-flow grain wagon experiments were conducted using a 7-8 year old female mannequin, three intervention design configurations — (1) no insert present, (2) solid (grate) insert, (3) and split outlet insert; and corn at 15-21% moisture content (wb) as the medium. Model wagon trials were conducted to characterize flow patterns that develop when grain exits a side-dump gravity-flow wagon, with and without a flat plate insert present. The thesis includes recommendations concerning the cost of a national retro-fit program, as well as measures to prevent future entrapments, and topics for additional research.

A study was conducted to develop strategies that would contribute to the prevention of fatalities and injuries that occur in on-farm grain bins due to flowing grain engulfments. The study of fatalities consisted of a review of data summarized from known entrapment cases and from the initiation of a national search for additional cases. Cases documented were summarized to identify a target audience and potential contents for the development of a prototype flowing grain entrapment curriculum and recommendations for engineering intervention strategies. During the years 1964 to 1998, 181 entrapment fatalities were identified that occurred in on-farm grain bins. It was estimated that at least five farm workers or children die annually in grain bins after becoming entrapped in flowing grain. There was evidence to suggest that non-fatal entrapments also regularly occurred and were not reported or identified by previous surveillance efforts. The phenomenon appeared to be concentrated in the major corn-producing states. 24% of the identified victims were 3 to 15 years old, while 31% of the victims were 56 to 86 years of age. Children under the age of 16 died most often in June, August and November, while adults suffocated more often in January and November. 96% of the victims were male. Stored corn was involved in 53% of the cases where the type of grain was identified. For the cases where the activity of the victim was noted during the entrapment, 76% were unloading grain. It was determined that out-of-condition grain was the most commonly identified causative factor. A prototype version of
the on-farm flowing grain entrapment curriculum developed as part of the study was based upon a review of existing educational resources, examination of specific engulfment cases, visits to entrapment sites, and discussions with agricultural safety experts, and first-response personnel. Portions of the curriculum were field tested with audiences at extension events, Purdue University farm employees, and students enrolled in Purdue’s Agricultural Safety and Health class. Recommendations concerning engineering intervention strategies were presented to key manufacturers of grain storage structures for feedback. These recommendations included the need to explore issues related to confined space entry, to reduce the potential for grain spoilage, and to reduce the level of accessibility for children.

The goal of this research was to address the problem of engulfments in flowing grain that occur in on-farm metal grain storage bins. This was accomplished by utilizing a systems approach to identify contributing factors to engulfment which were used to develop a 28-question hazard assessment tool. A numerically weighted high- and low-risk response accompanied each question, the sum of which resulted in a potential-risk-of-engulfment score for on-farm grain handling and storage systems. The assessment tool was pilot tested using nine farms where previous engulfment incidents had been reported and nine farms with no history of engulfment. A revised version was used to score an additional 26 farms with unknown histories of engulfment and by three individuals personally familiar with prior engulfment incidents. It was found that the difference between the mean of the assessment tool scores of farms with a history of engulfment and the mean of the scores of farms with no prior reported engulfment incident was significant (p=0.001). It was found that the management of grain during storage and an individual’s perception of risk and willingness to avoid flowing grain hazards had the most impact on reducing the potential for an engulfment. In contrast, a history of plugging problems resulting from out-of-condition grain was not found to make a considerable difference in scores between the two groups of farms. The presence of stirring devices in bins, accommodation for lockout devices on electrical controls, and utilizing grain storage bins smaller than 20,000-bushel capacity also had little impact on the difference in scores. Based upon the level of significance of each of the 28 questions’ ability to predict an increased risk of engulfment, it was concluded that a valid response could be obtained with as few as seven questions. Recommendations The first commercially available grain rescue tube was developed and tested by Doug Kingman, a Ph.D. student in the PUASHP. Units have been sold across the country, Australia, Canada, and Argentina. Page 36 of 50 concerning continued study and application of the tool were formulated including the need for additional research to evaluate the effectiveness of the tool to change the behavior of farmers who own and operate grain handling and storage equipment. Findings also contributed to the revision of a potential engineering standard for on-farm grain storage structures.

Research was conducted to compile data on the nature and estimated frequency of
deaths and injuries related to on-farm manure handling and storage facilities and to gain a
better understanding of causative factors. Data were gathered by reviewing cases from
published government reports, prior litigation, national and local media and other resources.
No prior studies were identified that addressed the magnitude of manure handling or storagerelated fatalities and injuries, nor their causative factors.

Seventy-seven (77) fatal cases were identified that occurred in the United States between
1975 and 2004. An additional 21 injury cases and 14 international fatality cases were
documented during completion of this project. Data concerning key causative factors were
gathered including: the type of facility involved (pit, lagoon, swine, dairy), the age of the
decedent, the activity at the time of death, the occupation at the time of death, and the
reported cause of death. The data represent the largest compilation of systematically gathered
information on this problem that is known to exist.

The data showed that the victim characteristics and causative factors did not reflect
previously reported patterns. Previous safety efforts have primarily focused on swine
operations but findings showed that 54.5% (42) of the deaths occurred in dairy operations
and 44% (34) in swine operations. The data raised serious concerns about underage access to
hazardous areas of farm operations including confined spaces by showing that 27% (21) of
the documented deaths occurred to persons 20 years of age or younger, with 21% (16)
involving persons under the age of 16.

The largest portion 34% (26), of the deaths occurred to persons conducting repairs or
maintenance activities on manure handling equipment. It was found that 22% (17) of those
fatally injured had entered the facility to perform an attempted rescue of another person.
Recommendations resulting from this study included the need to develop a centralized
reporting system for injuries, illnesses, and deaths associated with agricultural confined
spaces. Information concerning safety regulations and safe work practices contained in the
OSHA confined space standard should be made available to all farm operators who own or
manage confined space waste handling facilities, and they should be encouraged to
Page 40 of 50 implement them.

Work place safety standards should include the placement of signage or
warnings at the entrance to all potential confined spaces used for manure handling and
storage. Efforts should be made to update and expand the relevant ASAE engineering
standards and practices that apply to agricultural livestock facilities and manure handling and
storage facilities. Special considerations should be given to designs that reduce the need for
workers to access potentially hazardous confined spaces. Finally, the Agricultural Hazards
Order restricting access to any agricultural confined space that creates an unusually high
level of hazard for the teenage or youthful farm worker or family member should be fully
enforced.

Because entrapment in flowable agricultural material continues to be a relevant problem, there has been a growing interest in both preventative strategies and developing more effective first response or extrication techniques. It was concluded that there was a need to develop evidence-based rescue strategies especially with respect to the use of grain entrapment rescue tubes that were being introduced as a form of grain retaining system to protect the victim from further entrapment and to aid in extrication. There was also a need for a summary of rescue techniques currently being used in real word situations and to document the history of grain retaining walls (GRWs) and how they developed into grain entrapment rescue tubes (GERTs), the only rescue devices specific to grain entrapment.

Significant findings included: from 1964 – 2006 an average of 16 entrapments were documented per year; of the 196 cases where the rescue technique was known, fifty-six percent (56%) included cutting or punching holes in the side of the grain storage structure Page 42 of 50 and nineteen percent (19%) of the cases utilized the construction of a GRW to extricate the victim.
It was determined that as the moisture content of corn increased from 13.6% to 21.9% the amount of resistance against the LRS Grain Rescue Tube sheet insertion increased from 1368 Joules to 2169 Joules.

Inserting the tube around the victim without removing any grain from inside the tube increased the amount of vertical pull needed for extrication of the victim. In the scenario where the victim was entrapped to the waist and underarms, placing the tube around the mannequin increased vertical pull by 26% and 22% respectively.

Recommendations for further study included: determining the safest way to cut into a large bin or silo (i.e., >20,000 bushels) without causing substantial structural fatigue, quantify coefficients of friction of various grains at varying moisture contents on UHMW plastic, analyze the effects of pulling a human body out of grain during extrication, and determine the most effective means of training volunteer first responders, full-time first responders, and elevator personnel in grain entrapment rescue techniques.

Research was conducted to assemble data on the estimated frequency, severity and primary causative factors associated with injuries and fatalities involving confined spaces in agriculture. Data were collected by reviewing cases from previously conducted research, local and national media (both on-line content and print sources), and published reports.

Based on a review of literature, no prior studies were found that either addressed the overall frequency, severity and causative factors of agricultural confined spaces or defined what clearly constituted an agricultural confined space. Studies on specific types of confined space incidents were identified, including those involving grain storage, manure storage, and grain transport vehicles.

A total of 1255 cases were identified in the United States between 1964 and 2010 fitting the definition of an agricultural confined space, as defined by the Committee on Agricultural Safety and Health Research and Extension for the North Central Region (NCERA-197). Data were collected on factors related to these agricultural confined spaces, to include the following: type and classification of facility (i.e. commercial grain storage, OSHA-exempt dairy manure storage, etc.), agent of injury (i.e. grain bin, above-ground manure tank, feed storage tank, etc.), age and gender of victim(s), geographic location of incident, and severity of incident.

Grain storage facilities accounted for 71.0% of cases, manure storage structures accounted for 10.5% of cases, agricultural transport vehicles accounted for 9.2% of cases, forage storage structures accounted for 5.7% of cases, and all other cases accounted for 3.6%.

Grain storage & handling facilities and grain transport vehicles collectively accounted for 80% of all cases. Of these 1004 cases, 795 (79.2%) involved entrapment or engulfment in a flowing agricultural material. Of these 795 entrapment or engulfment cases, 543 (68.3%) involved metal storage bins.
Males accounted for over 96% of all confined spaces-related cases and over 65% of all cases resulted in a fatality. Where age was known, the average age of a victim was 38 years, and youth under the age of 16 accounted for nearly 20% of cases.

The data were limited by the lack of reporting requirements, especially for non-fatal cases, and in many instances, lack of comprehensive epidemiological information.

Historically, approximately 70% of grain-related incidents occur on farms, with the other 30% occurring at commercial facilities. However, most farms that have on-site storage structures are currently exempt from OSHA compliance as a result of OSHA’s Agricultural Exemption. This research project attempted to estimate the cost of compliance of a convenient sample of seven representative currently exempt on-farm grain storage facilities with selected OSHA workplace safety and health standards requirements that were deemed most applicable to such grain handling facilities. An assessment tool was developed to gather information on those requirements that were judged as being reasonable for currently exempt on-farm grain storage facilities, and on-site visits were conducted. The level of compliance with the standards requirements was assessed at each on-site storage facility and found to be low. The cost analysis showed that a legislative change of this magnitude, assuming, for instance, an estimated per-farm implementation expenditure of $8,476, would result in a total first-year cost to the nation’s 309,000-plus farms with on-farm grain storage of over $2.6 billion (not including the cost of bin retrofit to include adequate anchorage points). The cost of $8,476 includes labor costs of $4,200 and equipment costs of $4,276. Consequently, the findings presented support the belief that the economic impact of compliance would be significant.

Grain entrapments and engulfments are one of most common hazards associated with grain storage facilities. Since the 1970’s over 1,880 incidents have been documented in agricultural confined spaces of which 65% of all recorded incidents were grain entrapments and engulfments. There have been several studies conducted on the contributing factors behind these incidents; however, there have been very few attempts to understand the environmental, physiological or psychological factors the victims experience while entrapped, engulfed, or extricated. This includes understanding how secondary injuries are caused by grain or during extrication by first responders. The research effort was divided into three segments. The first segment is a literature review to identify and better understand the environmental, physiological and psychological stresses that an individual might be exposed to during grain entrapment, engulfment or extrication. The second segment expands upon previous studies that involved vertical pull tests (Schwab, Ross, Piercy, McKenzie, & B.A, 1985; Roberts, Field, Maier, & Stroshine, 2015) by testing forceful extrication attempts under a wider set of variables, including different types of grains (corn, popcorn, wheat, oats, soybeans, canola seeds and sunflower seeds), depths of entrapment, pull angles (15o, 30o, 45o, 60o, and 75o), limb placement and grain moisture content (corn only). With the exception of the pull angle test, these experiments were conducted only in a small scale setting. Pull angle tests were conducted in a full scale setting using a full sized mannequin (185 lb) in corn and soybeans. This is an important study since grain bin roofs are not generally designed for 5,000 lb anchor points. In addition, the tensile force limits of a sheep spine were tested and compared to the force needed to extricate a mannequin. The third segment focused on measuring the actual pressure that a victim might experience by pushing wooden plates against grain (simulating a rib cage pushing against the grain) and measuring the force. These experiments also focused on localized forces on the spine and limbs and estimating forces generated when a test mannequin is extricated at different angles. The literature review provided a total of eleven factors that negatively impact a victim’s ability to survive a grain entrapment. The most important factor was asphyxiation (which includes aspiration, crush asphyxiation and postural asphyxiation). In 33 cases where the cause of death was medically reported, 63% cited asphyxiation. Another factor of notable importance is psychological, where it was found that stress could cause shortness of breath and chest pain and thus could be a contributing factor in death. In the extrication segment of the research, it was found that high moisture content could increase extrication forces by 39%. In addition, while shallow angles of pull did not significantly impact extrication force, pulling a victim at angles sharper than 45o degrees increased extrication forces by 22-44%. Lastly, the author found that the maximum tensile force that a spine can handle (1.65-2.48 kN) was in the same range of forces required to extricate a victim from between waist and shoulder depth. In the third segment of research, the author found that passive pressure on the victim was about four times larger than active pressure, thus a victim will experience four times more pressure in grain (while attempting to breath) than what a load cell measures. In conclusion, the best strategy to prevent or reduce the severity of injuries associated with grain entrapments remains prevention through compliance with accepted best workplace practices and current workplace safety regulations. It was determined that 94% of all grain entrapment and engulfment incidents were preventable. Regarding methods of victim extrication from grain entrapment it was concluded that there is a real and possible risk of causing secondary injuries, including spinal injury, if force is used to pull the victim from the grain. Reducing the pressure on the victim by removing the grain from around the victim is strongly recommended unless there are other significant medical issues that might reduce the likelihood of survival if extrication is not expedited.

Research was conducted on the development, testing, and implementation of an original, evidence-based curriculum (Against the Grain) designed to reduce the frequency and severity of the most frequent types of injuries and fatalities involving young and beginning workers, ages 14-20, at grain storage and handling operations. This population has historically accounted for approximately 24% of documented entrapments, engulfments, asphyxiations, entanglements, falls, and electrocutions associated with grain handling and storage. This includes incidents during both work-related and non-work or recreational activities. Curriculum contents were based upon data summarized from Purdue’s Agricultural Confined Spaces Incident Database (PACSID), review of relevant injury prevention research, related educational resources and standards, and the provisions of applicable federal workplace safety and health regulations. A standard curriculum development model (DACUM) was used to design the tested curriculum that includes supporting instructional resources and five PowerPoint based lessons. The process identified 27 prioritized learning outcomes upon which the curriculum was based. Contents were tested using sound educational measurement methods including pre- and post-testing, instructor evaluation and participant follow-up assessments. Three educational delivery techniques were utilized for implementation and testing: 1) face to face secondary classroom instruction, 2) face-to-face instruction in informal, out of school or workplace settings, and 3) webinar-based instruction. An independent online instruction option was explored, but not implemented or assessed. The curriculum contents were reviewed and approved by the Federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) under the provisions of the Susan Harwood Training Program. The economic viability or sustainability of each delivery strategy was considered and recommendations made. Findings indicate that the Against the Grain curriculum, as currently available at (www.agconfinedspaces.org), resulted in significant increases in knowledge gain regarding the hazards related to grain storage and handling when presented to secondary-school agricultural education and post-secondary-school agriculture students using face-to-face based instruction. Although students enrolled in secondary-school education programs received lower average pre-test scores, they still showed, as anticipated, greater knowledge gain compared to the post-secondary-school students who completed the training. There was a 31.4% increase in post-test scores received by secondary-school agricultural students, and an 8% increase in post-test scores documented from post-secondary school agricultural students. Initial findings also indicated that the target audiences were more familiar with the hazards associated with grain storage and handling than originally expected, leading to revision of the curriculum contents and test questions. To date, approximately 4,000 young and beginning workers have been exposed to the curriculum and over 1,141 educators have accessed the curriculum contents at the project website. In the year of 2017, additional 670-page views were added to the project website. It was recommended that the curriculum be nationally promoted, that additional curriculum improvement could include updating visuals to more accurately reflect current practices in the grain industry, further alignment with agricultural education standards including both Agricultural, Forestry and National Resources (AFNR) and individual state standards, and adding the five grain safety lessons to the Purdue University developed Gearing Up for Safety curriculum for youth employed in agriculture to increase the scope and utilization of the curriculum.

Agriculture is a major industry in the U.S. with higher rates of mortality and morbidity due to occupational injuries when compared to other industries (BLS, 2016). Manure storage, handling, and transport facilities and equipment possess life threatening hazards on many livestock operations. These hazards include: 1) toxic manure gases generated within enclosed structures which can be fatal to both human and livestock due to direct exposure; 2) below and above ground liquid manure storage structures that have the potential risk for drowning and falling; 3) mechanical hazards associated with manure handling machinery, including entanglement and equipment failure, and 4) exposure to infectious agents found in livestock waste. Since the 1970’s over 2400 involving agricultural confined space incidents including nearly 460 incidents involving manure storage, handling and transport have been documented as part of ongoing surveillance by Purdue University’s Agricultural Safety and Health Program. There have been several efforts that have examined this data; however, few have attempted to monitor or summarize over time injuries and fatalities associated with livestock manure storage, handling, or transport equipment and facilities. In addition, no published work was identified that attempted to design or implement an agricultural-based surveillance method or consistent data classification/coding system that could be used to analyze cases involving manure-related injuries and fatalities. This research was designed to contribute to a better understanding of the problem of manure-related hazards, through development of a uniform coding system to classify these incidents, ongoing surveillance of individual cases of related injuries or fatalities, estimation of the frequency and severity of these incidents, identifying geographic distribution and primary farm type, victim characteristics, and causative factors including those related to both respiratory and machinery hazards associated with manure storage, handling or transport. Findings include, under reporting of incidents preventing a comprehensive understanding of the problem, 75% of documented cases were male with an average age of 35, approximately 20% of all documented incidents involved children and youth age 21 and younger. Findings from the analysis of cases documented to date and future cases will be used to develop more effective, evidence-based injury prevention and mitigation strategies and to develop a representative baseline for future assessment of these efforts. Outcomes from this research included: 1) consistent strategy to document, code, and summarize manure-related incidents; 2) means of classification of key causative contributing factors; 3) identification of new 13 or emerging trends; 4) analysis of the existing data set; and 5) recommendations for addressing key contributing factors through: identifying desired core competencies that should be addressed in future educational activities; new or modified engineering standards and potential regulatory concepts, and enforcement of current OSHA workplace safety and health regulations.